A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject+subject, verb phrase+verb phrase, sentence+sentence. When a coordinating conjunction is used to join elements, the element becomes a compound element. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind: however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions, the largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.

The following tables show examples of the various types of conjunctions and some sample sentences using the conjunctions. Since coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions are closed sets of words, all are included in the list. Subordinating conjunctions are a larger class of words; therefore, only a few of the more common ones are included in this list.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

An easy way to remember these six conjunctions is to think of the word FANBOYS. Each of the letters in this somewhat unlikely word is the first letter of one of the coordinating conjunctions. Remember, when using a conjunction to join two sentences, use a comma before the conjunction.

EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Remember, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements.When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conjunctions, (subordinators) are most important in creating subordinating clauses. These adverbs that act like conjunctions are placed at the front of the clause. The adverbial clause can come either before or after the main clause. Subordinators are usually a single word, but there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that function like a single subordinating conjunction. They can be classified according to their use in regard to time, cause and effect, opposition, or condition. Remember, put a comma at the end of the adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause

EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

RESOURCES:

• Azar, B. S.(1993). Understanding and Using English Grammar. Englewood Hills, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
• Byrd, P. and Benson, B. (1992). Applied English Grammar. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
• Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language. Essex, England: Longman.
• Hodges, J. and Whitten, M. (1984). Harbrace College Handbook. Atlanta: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publisher.

English language words

Parts of speech

Nouns       e.g. chair, information, happiness

Verbs       e.g. choose, tell, and complain

Adjectives     e.g. happy, tall, dangerous

Adverbs       e.g. slowly, carefully, often

 Prepositions     e.g. in, at, on

 Pronouns       e.g. me, you, him, we, it, she

Articles      e.g. definite article (the); indefinite article (a/an)  

Special! Terms

Uncountable noun: (U) a noun which has no plural form and cannot be used with the indefinite article, e.g. information.

Plural noun: (p1) a noun which only has a plural form and cannot be used with the indefinite article, e.g. trousers.

Infinitive: the base form of a verb, e.g. (to) work, (to) stop, (to) be.

Phrasal verb: a verb + adverb and/or preposition, e.g. turn on (verb + adverb), look after (verb + preposition), give up (verb + adverb), and put up with (verb + adverb + Preposition)

Idiom: a group of words with a meaning that is different from the individual words, e.g. never mind, hang on, a short cut, keep an eye on something.

Transitive verb: a verb which needs a direct object, e.g. Police caught the man (‘the man’ the direct object of the verb ‘caught’).

Intransitive verb: a verb which does not need a direct object, e.g. the books arrived on time. (There is no direct object after arrive.)

Word building 

In the word uncomfortable, un- is a prefix, comfort is a root, and -able is a suffix. Other common prefixes include: re-, in-, and dis-; common suffixes include: -ity, -ment, and -ivt Many words also have synonyms, which are words with the same meaning. For example; ‘big’ is a synonym of ‘large’. The opposite is small’.  

Pronunciation

Dictionaries show the Pronunciation of a word using phonetic symbols. Each word contains one or more syllables: ‘book’ has one syllable; ‘before’ has two syllable (be-fore); ‘cinema’ has three syllables (ci-ne-ma); ‘education’ has four syllables (e-du-ca. tion); and so on. 

For pronunciation, it is important to know which syllable has the main stress. On ‘before’ is the second syllable (be ‘fore) on ‘cinema’ it is the first (‘cinema); and on ‘education’ it is third (edu’cation). 

Note: Dictionaries mark stress in different ways: in bold (return); or a ‘before the main syllable (re’turn). Make sure you understand how your dictionary shows it.

Punctuation

Full stop.          Comma,           brackets ( )       hyphen -          question mark ?

سلام
تافل بخش شنیداری هم داره.
و اما ادامه درس

Abbreviated styles 

Some styles of writing and speech have their own special grammar rules, often because

Of the need to save space or time. 

1) Advertisements and instructions 

Small ads and instructions often leave out articles, subject or object pronouns, forms of be and prepositions. 

Cars wanted for cash. Contact Evans, 6 Latton Square.

(Not cars are wanted for cash…)  

Single man looking for flat oxford area. Phone 806127 weekends. Job needed urgently.

Will do anything legal. Call 31563. Pour mixture into large saucepan, heat until boiling, then add three pounds sugar and leave on low heat for 45 minutes.

Can be assembled in ten minutes. Easy to clean. Simple controls. Batteries not included. 

۲)    Notes

Informal notes, diary entries etc often follow similar rules.

Gone to hairdresser. Back 12.30.

Book tickets            phone Ann            see Joe 11.00                  meeting Sue lunch 

The same style may be used in postcards and short information letters.

Dear, Gran

Watching tennis on TV. A good book. Three meals a day. No washing up. Clean sheets every day. Everything done for me. Yes, you’ve guessed-in hospital!!

Only went to doctor for cold-landed up in hospital with pneumonia!! If you have time please tell the others-would love some letters to cheer me up.

Hope to see you.

Love, Pam 

۳)    Commentaries

Commentaries on fast –moving events like football matches also have their own grammar. Less important verbs are often left out.

Goal kick…and ball… the score still Spurs3, Arsenal 1….that’s Pearce….Pearce to Coates...Good ball…Sawyer running wide…Billings  takes it, through to Matthews, Matthews with a cross, oh, and Billings in Beautifully, a good chance there- and it’s a goal! 

4)    Titles, notices etc

Titles, labels, headlines, notices and slogans usually consist of short phrases, not complete sentences. Articles are often left out, especially in the names of buildings and institutions.

 Royal Hotel

Super Cinema

Information office

Bus stop

Police out

More money for nurses 

5)    Headlines

Newspapers headlines have their own special grammar and vocabulary.

Record drugs haul at airport: six held
Four die in blaze

A Quick Review of the Tenses (1)

Present continues (I am doing)

We use the present continues when we talk about something that is happening at the time of speaking, around the time of speaking, but not necessarily exactly at the time of speaking, a period around the present such as: today, this week, and we use the present continues when we talk about changing situations. Now read these examples and if you would like, you can give us your own examples:

1)      Please don’t make so much noise. I am studying.

2)      “Where’s Peggy?”  She’s taking a bath.

3)      Maria is studying English at a language school.

4)      Is your English getting better?

5)      The population of the world is rising very fast.

Simple present (I do)

We use the simple present to talk about things in general. We are not thinking only about the present. We use to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that something is true in general. It is not important whether the action is happening at the time of speaking. We use do/does to make questions and negative sentences. We use the simple present when we say how often we do things.

Note that we say “where do you come from?” (= where are you from?)

Now read these examples and if you would like, you can give us your own examples:

1)      The earth goes around the sun.

2)      Nurses take care of patients in hospitals.

3)      Excuse me, do you speak English?

4)      “Would you like a cigarette?” “No, thanks. I don’t smoke.”

5)      What does this word mean? (Not what means this word?)

6)      I get up at 6:30 every morning.

7)      How often do you go to go to the dentists?

8)      Where do you come from? (Not where are you coming from?)

9)      He comes from Japan. (Not he is coming from Japan.)

Present tenses (I am doing/ I do) with a future meaning

When you are talking about what you have already arranged to do, use the present continuous (I am doing). Do not use the simple present (I do). It is also possible to use going to (do).Do not use will to talk about what you have already arranged to do.

1)      What are you doing tomorrow evening? (Not what do you do?)

2)      I am going to the theater.

3)      Are you playing tennis tomorrow?

4)      What are you going to do tomorrow evening?

5)      Alex is getting married next month.( not Alex will get married.)

We use the simple present when we are talking about timetables, schedules, etc. (for example, public transportation, movies):

1)      What time does the move begin?

2)      The football match starts at 2:00.

3)      Tomorrow is Wednesday.

Going to (I am going to do)

We use going to (do) when we say what we have already decided to do, or what was intended to do in the future. We prefer to use the present continues ( I am doing) when we say what someone has arranged to do- for example , arranged to meet someone, arranged to travel somewhere. We use was/were going to say what someone intended to do in the past (but didn’t do).

Going to has another meaning. We use going to when we say what we think will happen. Usually there is something in the present situation (the man walking toward the hole) that makes the speaker sure about what will happen.

1)      There is a movie on TV tonight. Are you going to watch it?

2)      What time are you meeting Kim?

3)      We were going to take the train but, then we decided to go by car.

4)      Look at those black clouds! It is going to rain.

Prefixes

Prefixes (at the beginning of words) can help you to understand what a new word means. Here are some common prefixes.

prefix	meaning	example
Ex( + noun)	Was but not now	Ex-wife, ex-president
Half(+ noun or adjective)	5% of something	Half-price , half-hour
In , im(+adjective)	not	Informal, impossible
Non(+adjective or noun)	not	Non-smoking
pre	before